Johannes Brahms and his Third Symphony: A Staple of Music in 19th Century Vienna

Jaclyn Dziadose

Without craftsmanship, inspiration is a mere reed shaken in the wind.”1In just a simple phrase, famed and renowned composer Johannes Brahms showcases the type of composer he is: meticulous, methodical, skilled, and a perfectionist. Craftsmanship, mature musical knowledge, and the ability to evoke complex, structured, yet emotional, moving works, whether they’re solo piano pieces, chamber works, or large-scale symphonies, are qualities that the Hamburg-born composer possessed and displayed throughout his life. Johannes Brahms was one of the most significant, recognizable, and well-known composers of the Romantic era, his life spanning much of the 19th century and the emergence of Romanticism following Beethoven. He was very accomplished and holds great importance among contemporary composers, musicians, and historians, and not only in the grand scope of music history, but also in his time: mid-late 19th century Vienna. Brahms’ impact and influence was widespread and multifaceted, contributing and connecting to the social, political, and cultural aspects of Viennese society beyond his impressive compositions. He composed four symphonies in his lifetime, but one stands out for its encapsulating nature and its tribute to the music and characteristics before, during, and even after its time. Johannes Brahms, through his Third Symphony as well as his entire music career, successfully and brilliantly bridged composers of the past, present, and future, connecting the Classical and Romantic eras of music, and shaping the musical landscape of 19th century Vienna; he played a highly influential role in the City of Music, and left a lasting legacy on the musical world. 

Johannes Brahms was born on May 7, 1833, in Specksang, in Hamburg, Germany. [2] He had a modest upbringing, but he was lucky enough to be born into a musical family and exposed to music at a young age, learning violin and piano and trained in composition. [3] He developed his musical skills well, and began to accumulate attention in his late teens. [4] Brahms grew up under the influence, the blanket of successful, well-known composers like the Schumanns, which in turn influenced his music. He did belong to Protestantism, specifically as a Lutheran; however, he was not as guided, persuaded, or as disciplined of a follower of faith compared to other musical figures of Brahms’ time, such as Anton Bruckner. While having the label of a Lutheran, Brahms was still an innovative composer and musical artist that gained fame and position in the bustling, mixed nature of mid-late 19th century Vienna, which consisted of a variety of national, ethnic, and religious backgrounds, such as German, Jewish, Catholic, Czech, and other Eastern or Western European countries. Brahms was a German, as he was from Hamburg, and he was proud of his heritage and nationality, yet was able to ascertain and interact with musicians and other individuals that weren’t all German or Christian. He had several friends, colleagues, and connections with others residing or making a living in Vienna, such as the Schumanns, the Joachims, Julius Stockhausen, Hans von Bülow, Max Klinger, and Eduard Hanslick. [5] Even as a well-known and widely regarded German composer during the Romantic era of music, besides his famous, unmistakable beard, Brahms was known to be quite reserved and introverted, yet also sociable and was known to have a strong sense of humor. Furthermore, like other composers, Brahms maintained meticulousness when it came to composing and coming up with musical ideas; he displayed perfectionist tendencies and would always be extremely picky and specific about his compositional decisions and drafts. As his compositional journey and experience progressed, Brahms’ individuality grew in both his musical and personal characters; he was successful in cultivating his own highly individual style, with unique musical qualities and characteristics, such as his passion, combining of forms, and manipulation of rhythm. [6] Johannes Brahms and Robert and Clara Schumann developed an influential, long-lasting, and special bond, both in terms of their musical genius and prowess and their dedicated collaboration. The young, aspiring Hamburg composer became acquainted with the musical couple in 1853, and from that point on, they all developed a deep respect for one another’s music. [7] As time went on, their interactions increased, as they supported one another musically, financially, and mentally, and the played with one another, performing for audiences, both public and private. [8] Brahms greatly respected the Schumanns, and saw Robert as his role model, taking inspiration from Schumann’s music and incorporating it into his own, like his Third Symphony. In the Third’s main theme, Brahms references Schumann’s Rhenish Symphony. [9] Perhaps one of the most well-known and iconic companionship in music history is that of Brahms and Clara Schumann, Robert’s wife. Clara was a gifted pianist in her own right, and made a lasting contribution to the role of women in music. [10] When Robert Schumann grew sick with pneumonia, and eventually had to be put into an asylum, Endenich, to collect money for medical fees and expenses, and provide for her family, Clara toured, playing piano at festivals and anywhere she could. [11] While she was out doing this, Brahms would ensure that the Schumann children were taken care of, sometimes even watching after them himself. [12] In addition, while Robert was in Endenich, Brahms visited him frequently, not only to check on a friend and composer who he took inspiration from, but also to document his visits in letters to Clara and give her updates on her husband’s condition. [13] Throughout their music careers and lives, Johannes and Clara remained close companions and acquaintances, and visited each other when they could; when Brahms came to Frankfurt, he always made an effort to see one of his oldest friends, Clara Schumann. [14] They were great colleagues even after Robert’s passing, and collaborated, often asking for the other’s feedback on compositions, expressing enthusiasm for each other’s compositions.[15] Ferdinand Schumann, one of Robert’s and Clara’s grandsons, noted in his diary the interactions between the two composers later in life; he documented that Clara viewed Brahms as having no rivals among any living composer or musician. [16] Clara Schumann died at age seventy-six on May 20, 1896, and of course, Brahms attended her funeral, saying that she was the only person he truly loved. [17] The Schumanns certainly impacted Brahms’ life and career, developing a significant collaboration between Romantic-era composers in Vienna. 

During the 19th century, and even in the 18th century, when any aspiring or moderately well-known musician or composer wanted to become more popular and find more recognition, they traveled to Vienna. Vienna, Austria, was a critical location for those who were involved, passionate about, and skilled in the arts to flourish and find like-minded individuals. In the later years of the 19th century, Vienna began to witness more cultural and political tensions, creating a distinct sociopolitical climate in the city and among its people. Brahms, despite these tensions between different groups and backgrounds, developed relations with Jewish and Liberal musicians and figures, along with inner circles consisting of other musicians like the Schumanns and music critics.[18] Brahms, Hanslick, Kalbeck, Dömpke, and others were all colleagues and part of the Liberal elite in Vienna. [19] In 19th-century Vienna, the New German School, an established school of thought supported by Bruckner, Liszt, Wagner, and Berlioz, collectively antagonized and opposed composers including Brahms, Schumann, and Mendelssohn. While the New German School adopted the view of Beethoven as grandiose, Brahms, Schumann, and Mendelssohn saw Beethoven as a craftsman. Additionally, Brahms and his circle were “denying the New Germans any rightful claim to Schumann’s patrimony.”[20] Brahms and Bruckner, as a result, were contrasted with one another through both musical and political lenses, with Brahms being associated with the Liberal side of Vienna, and Bruckner being aligned with the Christian Socials of the city. [21] Brahms was considered “the Protestant,” the “free thinker,” and “the man of broad culture”; Bruckner, on the other hand, was a devout Catholic, and perceived to be “the Catholic,” the “orthodox believer” and “the provincial pedant.” [22] 

Throughout his time in Vienna and in his musical career, Brahms didn’t advocate for anti-semitism or religious beliefs, and rather displayed a “characteristically Liberal” attitude with his “pro-German stance, an antagonism toward the Catholic church, and a profound distrust of anti-intellectual trends.”[23] Due to his Liberal relations, Brahms faced more opposition from Bruckner and the Catholic Church after Richard Wagner passed away, continuing the growing divide between religious belonging and political alignment; as a response, however, music critics such as Eduard Hanslick sided with Brahms and further critiqued Bruckner and his music. [24] These comparisons and antagonization of musical figures in relation to political values show how music in Vienna was inherently and consistently intertwined with and influenced by the political and cultural context of the city. Due to the “close ties between the Viennese Liberals and Jews,” which is displayed in Brahms’ relations with certain musicians and members of the Liberal elite, “the calculated arousal of anti-semitic feelings became the most potent tool in the fight to dislodge the Liberals from power in [Vienna].”[25] Furthermore, Brahms’ musical styles and tendencies appealed to the Liberal culture, or the expression of individual and economic freedom, which is why he was commonly associated with them, even as a non-politician. His later music, which includes his Third Symphony, certainly reflects individualism. With his death in 1897, there was a decline in Liberalism in Vienna, along with the broadened electorate and the power of the liberal bourgeoisie. [26] 

In regards to the nature of absolute versus programmatic music, Brahms falls closer to absolute, which can be seen in his Third Symphony; the German composer occupied a middle ground between these separate concepts, which the Third showcases. [27] Also, as many of his works, including his F Major Symphony, show, Brahms combines and incorporates aspects of both the Classical and Romantic periods into his music. For instance, in the Third Symphony, he keeps a playful nature while having structure, along with emotional heft, as well as using a Classical ensemble but incorporating Romantic ideals into his music. Brahms was considered many things, one of them being the “progeny” of the absolute line of Viennese classical masters. [28] To add on, his music was perceived as the rebirth of absolute music. [29] He took inspiration from other composers and incorporated musical references, qualities, and heritage that trace back to them, whether they be from the past, like Beethoven, or during his time, like Schumann and Wagner. In general, Brahms’ music is a mix of musical styles, a blend of different traditions, and the Third Symphony is more absolute than programmatic. Importantly, the Third Symphony shows that Brahms wasn’t the complete opposite of New German School members like Liszt and Wagner; rather, the symphony expresses elements that best show how Brahms is near the center of the spectrum covering absolute and programmatic music. [30] Brahms created numerous works, including his Hungarian Dances, his string quintets and sonatas, his German Requiem, and his symphonies. While all of Brahms’ symphonies prove to be impressive, one of them stands out among the rest: Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90. Brahms composed his Third Symphony in the summer of 1883, over the span of four months, while staying at a vacation house in Wiesbaden on the Rhine. [31] Although it had been around six years since he last composed a symphony, Brahms wrote the Third at the arguable height of his career and compositional powers, as he celebrated his 50th birthday, and the work embodies the pinnacle of Brahms’ symphonic writing. [32] During time in Wiesbaden, Antonín Dvořák, a trusted friend, visited him, and Brahms had performed the piano arrangement of the symphony for the Czech composer. After hearing it, Dvořák praised the symphony, saying that it “surpasses [Brahms’] first two symphonies…What magnificent melodies there are for the finding!” [33] On December 2, 1883, Brahms’ Third Symphony premiered at the Musikverein, one of the most renowned concert venues in the world, by the Vienna Philharmonic, one of the most famous performance ensembles in the world. [34] The work was embraced and praised by critics and audience members alike, not only because of the Third’s incredible balance of inspiration and the mastery of technique, but also because of the incredible acoustics of the Golden Hall, also known as the Great Hall, in the Musikverein. The premiere of the Third at the Musikverein certainly contributed to how it was experienced and received by the audience, as the concert venue’s acoustics heightened the quality of sound and overall reception. The Golden Hall’s layout and design greatly benefits orchestras and large ensembles, enhancing their sound and clarity. The Gesellschaft der Musikverein is a significant concert venue that contributed to the continuation of the performance of Classical music. Construction for the Wiener Musikverein began in the 1860s, following Emperor Franz Joseph’s order to remove Vienna’s city walls in 1857, which led to the building of the Ringstraße boulevard. The concert venue opened on January 6, 1870. Its completion was marked with a ceremonial concert, which was loudly and massively praised thanks to the incredible acoustics of the Great Hall. Initially, the Wiener Musikverein had two halls: the Great Hall, a larger, main hall for orchestras and bigger ensembles, and a smaller hall that was intended for chamber music. The Musikverein’s main hall has over 1700 seats, and its smaller chamber hall has 600 seats. The Musikverein is considered classical concert heaven, establishing a famous reputation for being one of the most ideal places to perform and enjoy music. The venue was and still is home to the Society of Friends of Music and the Vienna Philharmonic, whose goals are to promote classical music and encourage young aspiring musicians and music lovers. The Musikverein embraces the architectural qualities seen in Ancient Greece, rather than adopting the grandeur and over-the-top nature of Baroque architecture; the building’s exterior and interior showcase pediments, columns, caryatids, and entablatures, all of which symbolize and tie back to Greek temples. Furthermore, the interior ceiling of the Great Hall has frescoes that depict the Greek God Apollo and the nine muses. In other words, the Musikverein is a temple for Viennese Classicism, whether it be based on its architecture or the classical music performed there. The acoustics of the Musikverein are incredible and exceptional due to its main hall having a shoebox layout, which was designed by Theophil von Hansen. In the Golden Hall, there are sound reflections and cavities in the ceiling and floor that all contribute to producing amazing resonation of sound. [35] The Golden Hall’s acoustical features, such as the contribution of air volume, the sound reduction index of the openable part of the floor, and acoustical probes, have been measured and indeed showcase the hall’s impressive sound quality. [36] Despite any seat changes or alterations to the Golden Hall’s setup, the clarity and lateral fraction remain the same; furthermore, the decorations along the side walls provide smooth reflections, which creates a very enveloping sound field. [37] 

Brahms displayed his mastery and maturity as a skilled composer in his second to last symphony in regards to its structure, rhythmic features, unifying themes, instrumentation, and his artistic and musical choices, as it takes its listeners on a dramatic, beautiful, and passionate musical journey. The Third is emotional and clever, and in a sense, it was the revival of Brahms’ symphonic writing, considering it has been years since completing his second symphony; the work is set apart from Brahms’ other symphonies because it can be interpreted as a new turn in symphonic art, breaking away from predecessor like Beethoven and his treatment of movements. [38] There’s drama, melodic beauty, vigor, melancholy, and introspection, a fusion of qualities within the symphony that make it unique and special. All of the Third’s movements end quietly, which was generally uncommon in symphonic writing; one would expect at least the first and last movements to end in triumph or boldly, but Brahms gives all four of the Third’s movements a soft conclusion. 

Similar to Beethoven’s later symphonies, Brahms incorporates a motif, F-A(b)-F, that continues and echoes throughout the symphony and unifies the entire work; in the first few seconds of the first movement, as well as during the final moments of the fourth movement, one can hear this three-note idea, which connects and unifies the symphony’s movements together. The symphony itself, consequently, is cyclic, meaning that melodies and themes heard in earlier movements come back in later movements. For instance, the first theme of the first movement is heard in the fourth movement, the second movement’s second theme is heard in the fourth movement, and the very opening and closing of the symphony are echoes of one another. The thematic F-A(b)-F motto that opens, appears in, and ends the work represents the German phrase “Frei aber froh”, which translates to “Free but happy”. Brahms came up with this phrase as a playful response to his friend, Joseph Joachim’s motto, “Frei aber einsam”, which means “Free but lonely”. [39] Additionally, the Third Symphony consists of rhythmic and metric instability, such as changing time signatures and sometimes an obscured meter. Similar to Robert Schumann, Brahms plays with time signatures and rhythm in this work, emphasizing the tug between duple and triple meter, which displays his technical mastery of music. One of the most influential musical narratives and driving forces in the Third is the tension between major and minor keys. The F-A(b)-F motto initiates this struggle in the very opening of the first movement: the first couple of striking chords shift between F major and F minor, specifically highlighting the switch between the notes ‘A’ and ‘Ab’, which immediately creates a sense of instability and tension. The Third Symphony’s first movement in F major can be described as stormy and uncertain, the second movement in C major as melodic yet mysterious, the third movement in C minor as a bittersweet waltz, and the fourth movement in F minor as darkening and unwinding. Clara Schumann, a widely acclaimed pianist, regarding her close friend’s symphony, remarked, “All the movements seem to be of one piece, one beat of the heart, each one a jewel! From start to finish one is wrapped about with the mysterious charm of the woods and forests. I could not tell you which movement I loved most.”[40] Moreover, Hans Richter, the conductor of the Vienna Philharmonic at the time of the Third’s premiere at the Musikverein, compared Brahms’ symphony to Beethoven’s third symphony, nicknaming Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Opus 90 “Brahms’ ‘Eroica’.”[41] In the exposition of the first movement of Brahms’ Third Symphony, Allegro con brio in F Major and 6/4 time, the three-note motif, F-A(b)-F, is heard in the opening chords played by the brass, which is immediately followed by the first theme in the violins, creating a stormy, tense atmosphere; this theme is a reference to Robert Schumann’s Rhenish Symphony. [42] The first subject and a quieter, calmer secondary theme are heard in the strings, followed by some modulations, and eventually, the clarinets play the second subject in A major, where the time signature changes to 9/4. Then the violins take on the second subject theme freely inverted. The F-A(b)-F motif from the opening of the movement returns, and leads the music into a cadence theme. The exposition ends stormily in F minor, and is repeated. The first movement’s development begins in C# minor with an angry transformation of the second subject, which is followed by the strings playing the second subject inverted, creating excitement. The music then modulates to Eb major, where a version of the three-note figure, F-A(b)-F, is played by the horns as G-Bb-G. The development then travels to Eb minor, a key far away from F major. Brahms signals the arrival of the recapitulation with the same powerful chords outlining the F-A(b)-F motif from the very opening of the movement. The first theme is heard again and treated with a chromatic bassline. Then, the transition theme shifts in harmony, and leads the music into D major, which the second theme is played in. All of a sudden, there’s a key change to F major, which is the home key; however, another modulation occurs, this time to D minor, and the recapitulation comes to an end in this key, which is not expected. The music returns to F major, the home key, in the coda, where there is more excitement, furious development, an expressive climax, and eventually a descent in notes and volume, and the first movement ends quietly on a soft, satisfying, and sustained F major chord. Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90 was widely praised, displaying rhythmic complexity through Brahms’ manipulation of one’s sense of time, rhythm, and meter. There isn’t any other work by Brahms where there’s “a happier balance of freshness of inspiration with technical mastery and maturity. Nowhere has he conceived lovelier, more individual melodies than the clarinet theme of the first movement, the cello melody of the Poco allegretto, the delightfully forthright, almost burly second theme of the finale.” [43] It remains a great example of absolute music with a few references to other composer’s pieces. Brahms’ F Major Symphony is organized and descriptive, as well as demanding in terms of performance, rhythm, and articulation. [44] Not only does the Third prove to be an exciting and worthwhile listening experience, but Brahms’ other symphonies offer innovation and emotion, too. In his First Symphony, Brahms yet again references composers of the past and connects back to Beethoven’s Ninth through the horn solo in the finale that resembles clock chimes and the finale’s “dragged out and saturated” melody. [45] The Fourth Symphony is strong, and is a rarity among other symphonic works, as it ends tragically, much like Mahler’s “Tragic” Sixth Symphony. Brahms’ symphonic music as a whole can be compared to the music of Bach and Mozart, his predecessors, because it is not entirely dependent on orchestral color for overall orchestral effect. [46] Moreover, his symphonies display individuality and personality, just as his chamber music does. Brahms seeks to ensure that his themes are heard and identifiable throughout his symphonies, and across their movements to convey unity and emotional content. His four symphonies, whose reception was overwhelmingly positive and respectful, collectively represent a journey through his development as a composer, with the Third Symphony standing out for its balance of structure and inspiration. [47] 

Of course, Johannes Brahms was recognized and praised among music society in Vienna, in his day, and is still considered to have left a prominent mark on music history. In particular, during his time, Brahms had an impact on the career of Dvořák, a very well-known Czech composer in music history for his later symphonies, especially his New World Symphony, and his iconic Cello Concerto in B Minor. Brahms was the one to immerse Dvořák into Vienna’s musical circles and society; even though Brahms had more position, works published, and musical significance in Vienna compared to Dvořák at the time, he held Dvořák in high respect, considering the Czech composer was the first to hear a private performance of the piano arrangement of the Third Symphony while visiting Brahms’ vacation spot in Wiesbaden. For Brahms and Dvořák, respect and trust went both ways, and they were trusted companions. Their friendship has been described and viewed in the letters they exchanged, along with the esteemed music critic Hanslick, a friend of Brahms, in which they discussed Dvořák’s music, with the Czech composer addressing Brahms as “Honored Master”. [48] Such letters and accounts of their interactions showed how Dvořák idolized and greatly admired Brahms, and how Brahms was willing to assist an aspiring musician, regardless of where he came from and what his roots were. Brahms’ connections with music directors and publishers, such as Simrock and Schlesinger, allowed Dvořák to have his pieces performed, which eventually gave rise to his popularity. [49] Brahms and Hanslick had a hand in advocating for Dvořák’s music to be heard. The two “very probably arranged for Dvořák to meet Jauner, the director of the court opera, when the Czech composer was in Vienna visiting Hans Richter during November 1879.”[50] It can be argued that Dvořák owes his career and fame to Brahms, and that Brahms did more for him than for any other person, which goes to show the influence Brahms had in late 19th-century Vienna. [51] 

The great friendship between Brahms and Dvořák showcases how, despite Brahms’ German nationality and heritage, he, as a mature, older composer and musician, sought to help an aspiring, younger composer and musician succeed. Dvořák’s Czech, non-German background didn’t stop Brahms from immersing him into Vienna’s music society and aiding him in his efforts to grow more popular and become recognized for his own music. Nationality, for a German like Brahms, although he did embrace his background and grew up with the music of Beethoven and Wagner, did not override the musical promise and potential Dvořák had, or his music colleagues in Vienna, whether they were German, Austrian, or Jewish. Brahms, in short, looked beyond cultural and nationalistic boundaries, forming friendships with a Czech like Dvořák and Jews like Joachim. Today, music historians see Johannes Brahms as the savior of serious music. He developed his music career in Vienna, following in the footsteps of past composers, like Mozart and Beethoven. Brahms made an effort to connect to his predecessors, his fellow or rising composers of his time, such as the Schumanns, Strauss II, and Dvořák, and to modern-day musicians. In 1937, the secondary hall in the Musikverein, which was meant for chamber music and concerts, was named after Johannes Brahms, remaining one of the most ideal spots for chamber music performance. The Hamburg-born composer’s larger works, like his symphonies and German Requiem, display much of his musical and compositional achievement, along with his chamber music.[52] He is an interesting, complex character, possessing more uniqueness than other Viennese classicists like Haydn and Mozart, and establishing a very extensive list of achievements and influence.[53] Brahms developed his own highly individual style, with unique qualities and use of articulation, passion, tempo, and rhythm, and cultivated the ideal of incorporating personality into individual style.[54] He can be viewed as the composer who pointed the way for modern music in his use of dissonances, too.[55] 

All in all, Brahms is rightfully known as one of the three famous B’s of music: Bach, Beethoven, and Brahms. His musical abilities, extensive music career, and the methods through which he honors and collaborates with other composers and musicians highlight the essence of Romanticism, as well as Brahms’ role as a bridge between the music makers of his past, those of his time, and his contemporaries. He creatively and consistently honored the style, legacy, and genius of past and present composers and their music, as well as cultivated inspiration in future, younger composers and musical ideals. Brahms’ Third Symphony serves as a compositional triumph and represents the German composer reaching the height of his symphonic writing. It is unique and fascinating to understand Brahms’ special forging of past musical traditions of Classicism, the current traditions of Romanticism, and the styles, climate, and musical culture of Vienna. Brahms’ legacy and impact on music history are certainly timeless and showcase an exemplary composer whose musical achievements, tastes, and connections were inspired and continue to inspire composition and style. So, Johannes Brahms, in evaluating his Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90, as well as the span of his career, successfully bridged and connected to composers of his past, present, and future, found inspiration in both the Classical and Romantic eras of music, and affected the musical landscape of 19th-century Vienna. His legacy and role in the musical world can never, will never be forgotten, and history will always remind us of the impressiveness, important life events, musical prowess, and profound impact on music conveyed by Johannes Brahms. 

Endnotes

[1] “22 Inspiring Composer Quotes”

[2] Swafford, 15. 

[3] Chernaik, 257.

[4] Ibid., 258. 

[5] Adler & Strunk, 121. 

[6] Adler & Strunk, 125.

[7] Chernaik, 256. 

[8] Ibid., 262. 

[9] Frisch. Brahms and His World, 96. 

[10] Chernaik, 189. 

[11] Ibid., 273. 

[12] Ibid. 

[13] Chernaik, 281.

[14] Schumann, 507. 

[15] Chernaik, 247. 

[16] Schumann, 514. 

[17] Frisch. Brahms and His World, 70. 

[18] Notley, 108. 

[19] Ibid., 112.  

[20] Frisch, Brahms and His World, 107.

[21] Swafford, 502. 

[22] Adler & Strunk, 140. 

[23] Notley, 108. 

[24] Ibid.  

[25] Notley, 115.

[26] Ibid., 108. 

[27] Brown, 452. 

[28] Ibid., 434. 

[29] Ibid., 435.  

[30] Ibid., 452.

[31] Swafford, 484. 

[32] Ibid., 482. 

[33] Houston Symphony. 

[34] Swafford, 493.

[35] Farina et al., 316.

[36] Farina et al., 316.

[37] Farina et al., 320. 

[38] Frisch. Brahms and His World, 244. 

[39] Swafford, 486.

[40] Flanders. 

[41] Swafford, 487.

[42] Frisch. Brahms and His World, 97. 

[43] Mason, 374.

[44] Deas, 115. 

[45] Ibid., 113. 

[46] Ibid., 114. 

[47] Frisch. Brahms, the Four Symphonies, 152.  

[48] Clapham, 243.

[49] Ibid., 246. 

[50] Ibid., 247. 

[51] Ibid., 254. 

[52] Adler & Strunk, 119.

[53] Ibid., 120. 

[54] Ibid., 139. 

[55] Adler & Strunk, 141.

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Brown, A. Peter. “Brahms’ Third Symphony and the New German School.” The Journal of Musicology, vol. 2, no. 4, 1983, pp. 434–52. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/763689. Chernaik, Judith. Schumann: The Faces and the Masks. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2018. 

Clapham, John. “Dvořák’s Relations with Brahms and Hanslick.” The Musical Quarterly, vol. 57, no. 2, 1971, pp. 241–54. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/741217. 

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Flanders, Nell. “Brahms Symphony No. 3 Program Note.” Princeton Symphony Orchestra, https://www.princetonsymphony.org/brahms-symphony-no-3-program-note#:~:text=Brah ms'%20longtime%20friend%20and%20musical,of%20the%20woods%20and%20forests. Accessed 12 December 2024. 

Frisch, Walter. Brahms, the Four Symphonies. Schirmer Books, 1996. Internet Archive,

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